17, 18 Thus, the incidence of EC is increasing due to the increased life expectancy and obesity (causing elevated estrogen level). 10, 16 Elevated estrogen levels and increasing age are well-known risk factors of EC. Endometrial cancer (EC), also known as uterine cancer, is the sixth most common female cancer. However, treatment options are limited and the survival rate is low for patients who present with distant metastatic disease, as well as those with unresectable recurrent disease and those who recur at distant. The 5-year OS rate for all stages is ~66%. 14, 15 With early screening and effective treatments such as radical surgery or concurrent chemoradiation (a combination of radiation and chemotherapy), the cure rate of CC can reach 80% in the early-stage disease (FIGO stage I–II). 12, 13 Thus, HPV testing is an important part of CC screening, and immunization against HPV (e.g., vaccines) has been designed to prevent CC.

11 HPV overexpresses E6 and E7 oncoproteins which inhibit TP53 and RB1 proteins from altering cell cycle, apoptosis, and DNA repair. 10 High-risk human papilloma virus (HPV) infection is considered to be responsible for more than 90% of CC development.

Cervical cancer (CC), as the fourth most common female cancer globally, is also a major health problem especially for women in developing countries. However, the response rates and outcomes are disappointing. 8, 9 In the platinum-resistant disease, single non-platinum agent is used, such as paclitaxel, docetaxel, pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD), gemcitabine and topotecan. 7 At first relapse, ~20–25% of patients have platinum-resistant (disease recurs ≤6 months from the last platinum-based chemotherapy) or platinum-refractory (disease progress during or within 4 weeks of platinum-based chemotherapy) disease, with poor prognosis. 5, 6 Although the response rate of the first-line treatment is high, most of the patients will eventually experience relapses within the subsequent 3 years. 3, 4 The standard-of-care fist-line treatments for OC are debulking surgery and perioperative platinum-based chemotherapy.

1, 2 The 5-year overall survival (OS) rate of OC is ~47% for all stages, and >70% of patients are diagnosed at the advanced stage with an even lower 5-year OS rate. Epithelial ovarian cancer (OC) comprises ~90% of the malignant ovarian neoplasms, which is one of the leading causes of death in women. Gynecological malignancies, mainly including ovarian, cervical, and endometrial cancer, seriously affect the health of women worldwide, contributing considerably to the global cancer burden.

Cancer mod sims 4